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Galton and subsequent investigators find wide divergences in people's subjective reports of mental imagery. Such individual differences might be taken to explain the peculiarly irreconcilable disputes over the nature and cognitive significance of imagery which have periodically broken out among psychologists and philosophers. However, to so explain these disputes is itself to take a substantive and questionable position on the cognitive role of imagery. This article distinguishes three separable issues over which people can be "for" or "against" mental images. Conflation of these issues can lead to theoretical differences being mistaken for experiential differences, even by theorists themselves. This is applied to the case of John B. Watson, who inaugurated a half-century of neglect of image psychology. Watson originally claimed to have vivid imagery; by 1913 he was denying the existence of images. This strange reversal, which made his behaviorism possible, is explicable as a "creative misconstrual" of Dunlap's "motor" theory of imagination.

The emergence and growth of scientific psychology in the period 1855–1914 constituted one of the most important advances in the history of human understanding. For centuries issues such as the characteristics of human and animal mind, the relationship between mind and body, the relative roles of cognition, emotion, and volition in the operations of the mind, techniques for the improvement of memory, variations in character, the psycho-logical status of the child in relation to education, and the nature of mental healing had been the subject of philosophical specu-lation and debate.

There are many well known accounts of the history of visual science (some references are given below) but it seems hard to find a simple chronological listing of major events. Sometimes such a list can be helpful in gaining a quick historical perspective. This note presents a chronology listing 133 significant events between 1600 and 1960. In addition, for completeness sake, there is a brief preliminary section that sketches the history of visual science before 1600. All of this material is based on standard secondary sources: the author is not a specialist in the history of science, and the object here is not to contribute anything new to the history of vision research but rather simply to collate material already scattered throughout the literature--though of course the choice of "significant" events is idiosyncratic.

Hundreds of researchers have made significant contributions to cognitive science. What follows is a set of short academic biographies of people whom we believe should be counted on anyone's list of important contributors; the work of many of them is discussed in the Companion. Not every important figure is included; and some people are included, especially from the history of cognitive science, who would not describe, or could not have described, themselves as cognitive scientists despite their considerable impact on the field. We trust that the list will be useful to students doing research in cognitive science and to readers who wish to familiarize themselves with the work of specific contributors.

Throughout most of human history, psychology did not exist as a specific field of study. For many years, psychology was a subject addressed indirectly by mythology, relegion, politics and philosophy. Only towards the end of the 19th Century did psychology become a discipline of its own. Welcome to the Lifschitz Psychology Museum. This virtual museum provides a variety of exhibits regarding the many facets of psychology. The exhibits are designed to be friendly enough for anyone to enjoy, but also contain a wealth of intriguing information. It is our hope that your visit will be an enjoyable and educational experience.

Emotional Deprivation Disorder is a syndrome which results from a lack of authentic affirmation and emotional strengthening in one's life. A person may have been criticized, ignored, neglected, abused, or emotionally rejected by primary caregivers early in life, resulting in that individual’s stunted emotional growth. Unaffirmed persons are incapable of developing into emotionally mature adults until they receive authentic affirmation from another person. Maturity is reached when there is a harmonious relationship between a person’s body, mind, emotions and spiritual soul under the guidance of their reason and will.1

The beginning of the sixteenth century is the most famous period of Italian art. It was the time of Michelangelo, Raphael, Dürer, Holbein, Giorgione, Titan, Correggio and many other famous masters. Leonardo da Vinci was much more than an artist. He was an astronomer, sculptor, geologist, mathematician, botanist, animal behaviourist, inventor, engineer, architect and even a musician. He was all of these things and more. As the world faces a new millennium Leonardo da Vinci remains one of the most fascinating people history has ever known. He once said that "things of the mind left untested by the senses are useless." Leonardo left little untested, yet few people know the amazing story behind the man often described as the embodiment of the Renaissance. This Web site endeavours to introduce you to the artist, the scientific visionary, the amazing inventor and Leonardo, the man. One can never explain the existence of genius, one can but enjoy.

Did You Know? Leonardo Da Vinci invented scissors; also, it took him ten years to paint Mona Lisa's lips.

I began compiling Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History as a source for a biography of Franklin. I gradually came to think that it had scholarly value of its own, though I still intend it to be the basic documentation for the biography. Since the Documentary History (DH) is arranged chronologically, the dates in the biography can be readily checked in the DH, where bibliographical references are given. The DH calendars but does not print Franklin's writings. It refers to The Papers of Benjamin Franklin far more frequently than to any other source, citing the Papers for the innumerable scholarly contributions made by that great edition. Since The Papers of Benjamin Franklin is also arranged chronologically, the date itself in the DH can serve as a reference to the Papers. For the user's convenience, however, the materials in the Papers are cited by volume and page in the DH. For example, the chronology begins with the birth of Josiah Franklin (BF's father) and cites the prefatory roman numeral pages 50-51 of volume one and the genealogial chart on roman numeral page 69. In those instances when a writing by Franklin is not in the Papers, the DH cites The Canon of Benjamin Franklin: New Attributions and Reconsiderations (Canon)and, if printed therein, Benjamin Franklin: Writings (W). Of course, a few new attributions occur in the DH; brief justifications for these are found in the DH and more detailed ones in the biography. The DH also lists Franklin's attendence and participation in the meetings of the Library Company of Philadelphia, the Union Fire Company, and other organizations, as well as references to Franklin in private letters and in the contemporary periodical press. Beginning with the appointment of Franklin and Meredith as Pennsylvania's official printers (30 Jan 1730), the DH records the meetings of the Pennsylvania Assembly because Franklin made sure to be in Philadelphia during the legislative sessions. Beginning with Franklin's election as clerk to the assembly (15 Oct 1736), the DH chronicles the most important assembly business because Franklin kept the minutes; and beginning with Franklin's election as a representative (9 May 1751), it includes brief discussions of most assembly sessions where Franklin played an active part.

Albert Einstein is perhaps the most amazing scientific mind the world has ever seen. Few people (with the exception of Newton, Hawking, etc.) in the history of the world compare to his superior genius. Albert Einstein not only changed the scientific community forever, but changed every-day life as we know it.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany in March 14, 1879. He had a troubled childhood as most people know. From the time he was very young, he had a deep seeded interest in math and science. At times, he got so board with his schoolwork he stopped doing it and consequently failed math. Einstein's mathematics professor, Hermann Minkowski, got so angered with Albert's lack of interest in the class; he called Einstein a "lazy dog." From the time he was very young till his death, he would only study what he wanted to. When Einstein was in college, he often got upset because the Physics Professors only covered the "Old Physics" and Einstein wanted to learn about the "New Physics."

Many things are known about optics: the rectilinearity of light rays; the law of reflection; transparency of materials; that rays passing obliquely from less dense to more dense medium is refracted toward the perpendicular of the interface; general laws for the relationship between the apparent location of an object in reflections and refractions; the existence of metal mirrors (glass mirrors being a 19th century invention).