Ancient (BCE-40 CE)

The foundation-stone of Dr Muhammad Aslam Nasir's thesis is his very drastic reinterpretation of the words of Imam Muhammed al-Baqir ibn 'Ali ibn Husain. That Imam's statement about a lunar eclipse on the "first night of Ramadan", is regarded by Dr Muhammad Aslam as referring to the 13th of Ramadan - by arguing that the 13th is the earliest Ramadan date when such an eclipse is possible. Similarly, Imam Baqir's stipulation of a solar eclipse "in the middle of Ramadan" has been reinterpreted by Dr Muhammad Aslam as one which would take place on the 28th of Ramadan!

Before the Communist Revolution, a number of religious and philosophical systems were practiced in China. Traditionally Taoism and Confucianism provided ethical guides to the proper behavior of individuals and officials. Both of these systems originated in China during the so-called Golden Age of Chinese thought, several centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. Taoism sought to promote the inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings. Confucianism, based on the teachings and writings of the philosopher Confucius, is an ethical system that sought to teach the proper way for all people to behave in society. Each relationship--husband-wife, parents-children, ruler-subjects--involved a set of obligations which, if upheld, would lead to a just and harmonious society. Following his teachings would also promote a stable, lasting government.

Ebrey Introduction] The concepts of Yin and Yang and the Five Agents provided the intellectual framework of much of Chinese scientific thinking especially in fields like biology and medicine The organs of the body were seen to be interrelated in the same sorts of ways as other natural phenomena, and best understood by looking for correlations and correspondences. Illness was seen as a disturbance in the balance of Yin and Yang or the Five Agents caused by emotions, heat or cold, or other influences. Therapy thus depended on accurate diagnosis of the source of the imbalance.

The art of printing was practiced in China at a date somewhat earlier than that assigned to the beginning to printing in Europe, which was about 1405. It is quite certain that the Chinese knew the art of printing at least five centuries ago, and some of them assert that printing was known to their people before the beginning of the Christian era, about 50 BCE Their method of printing differs widely from that employed in Europe, and our method would be quite impracticable for them because of the exceedingly large number of Chinese characters and symbols, At present they cut their charcters in a reverse position and in a simplified form, on a comparatively' small tablet made for the most part from the wood of the pear tree or the apple tree, although at times the wood of the jujube tree is also used for this purpose.

Acupuncture and moxibustion are an important component of traditional Chinese medicine with a long history. As early as in the New Stone Age in China, the primitive human beings used Bian stone, the earliest acupuncture instrument, to treat diseases. With the development of productive forces, bone needles and bamboo needles appeared. After the development of metal casting techniques and metal tools, the people began to use metal medical needles, such as bronze, iron, gold and silver ones. At present steel needles are widely used.