Ancient (BCE-40 CE)

Nearly 4,000 years ago, the Egyptians were using hide glue for their furniture adhesive. This is proven by hairs found in Pharaoh's tombs and by stone carvings depicting the process of gluing different woods. Hide glue is still in use today for wood gluing and over the years much has been written about the manufacture and use of hide glue for hundreds of other adhesive applications. With the evolution of synthetic (ready to use) adhesives, hide glue has taken a lesser role in industry but has maintained a major role in repair and restoration of antique furniture, reproduction of period furniture, restoration, production and repair of musical instruments as well as numerous other applications.

The main ideas which underpin the calculus developed over a very long period of time indeed. The first steps were taken by Greek mathematicians.

To the Greeks numbers were ratios of integers so the number line had "holes" in it. They got round this difficulty by using lengths, areas and volumes in addition to numbers for, to the Greeks, not all lengths were numbers.

Leucippus, Democritus and Antiphon all made contributions to the Greek method of exhaustion which was put on a scientific basis by Eudoxus about 370 BC. The method of exhaustion is so called because
one thinks of the areas measured expanding so that they account for more and more of the required area.

Hundreds of researchers have made significant contributions to cognitive science. What follows is a set of short academic biographies of people whom we believe should be counted on anyone's list of important contributors; the work of many of them is discussed in the Companion. Not every important figure is included; and some people are included, especially from the history of cognitive science, who would not describe, or could not have described, themselves as cognitive scientists despite their considerable impact on the field. We trust that the list will be useful to students doing research in cognitive science and to readers who wish to familiarize themselves with the work of specific contributors.

Many people view genetic engineering as a relatively new field of scientific pursuit, but in fact the techniques that are in use today are the result of a series of landmark discoveries that were made over a period spanning more than 125 years. This article presents a timeline of key discoveries that have culminated in the human genome project, an international effort to decipher the sequence of the 3 billion base pair subunits of DNA which reside in the chromosomes of human beings.

General Information
If you are looking for a fast, very good overview of the history of mathematics, then select Overview . Perhaps the most extensive archive for the history of mathematics is MacTutor at Saint Andrew's University in Scotland. This is the work of John O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson of the School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences. The archive contains information on more than 1000 mathematicians, in two groups: long biographies (alphabetical index or chronological index) and short biographies index. There is a Chronology showing the overlapping lives of mathematicians in the long biographies. Further, there is a birthplace map, a mathematicians of the day page, and a list of anniversaries for the year. Finally (but not exhausting everything in MacTutor) is a list of other good sources of information available on the web concerning the history of mathematics. On the other hand, the most extensive as well as spectacular resource may be at Clark University. David E. has amassed a massive (ptp) amount of information. Just consider his Regions or Web Resources, to identify only two of his contributions. Further, by going to his Home Page page, you can access such things as regional mathematics, subjects, chronology, timelines (these are particularly fascinating), and books and other resources. Other web resources worthy of note are at the University of Utah.

The history of particle accelerators for ion beams is often described in association with the development of cyclotrons, primarily due to their wide-spread use in the medical field. However, what is often not acknowledged is that ion linear accelerators (“linacs”) were developed in parallel with the cyclotron and other circular accelerators. While Lawrence and Livingston designed the first small cyclotron in 1930, R. Wideröe had already published a paper in 1928 on his results from an rf powered linear accelerator for ions.

The word abacus comes from the Greek word "ABAX" meaning a calculating board or calculating table. It was invented by the Chinese, the first known record of the abacus was from an ancient sketch in a book from the Yuan Dynasty which was in the fourteenth century. It has a Mandarin name which is"Suan Pan" which means calculating plate. It's inventor is unknown. The Abacus is mostly referred to as the first computer

For over two thousand years people have thought about the fundamental particles from which all matter is made, starting with the gradual development of atomic theory, followed by a deeper understanding of the quantized atom, leading to the recent theory of the Standard Model.
We invite you to explore this history of particle physics with a focus on the scientists and thinkers who helped shape the field of particle physics. The four sections are arranged chronologically.

Diseases of the uro-genital tract are as old as the human species itself. Archaeological findings, as well as the very first writings, indicate that our ancestors were plagued by the same kind of discomforts routinely encountered in modern urological practice. For example, in a 5,000-year-old mummy of a child, a huge bladder stone was found. Circumcision and removal of the penile foreskin was probably the first operation ever performed on a routine basis. The importance of urinary stone disease and the dangers of treating bladder stones were already fully recognised by Hippocrates, `The Father of Medicine`. Hippocrates recognised the importance of the analysis and judgment of human excreta. This started a tradition of many ages of urine-analysis by inspection (uroscopy) and tasting.