Ancient (BCE-40 CE)

The transitional period falls between the pre 17th century alchemy and the 18th century chemistry. The climax of this period is probably with the English scientist Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) and his book "Principia Mathematica" (1687). In this book, Newton introduced three laws of motion which served well for over two centuries in mechanical sciences. He also expanded his theories of gravitation and provided some useful explanations of the work of the Italian Scientist Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) who in the 1590's studied the behavior of falling bodies.

Prehistoric Era: Cranial Trephination
The purpose of cranial trephination, as practiced by prehistoric groups was largely to treat traumatic head injuries. Some trephinations were performed to treat headaches and seizure disorder. There were three main methods: Cutting, Scraping, Grooving and Drilling.

Natural products have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times. These include materials from plant, animal, and mineral sources, with the majority derived from plants.
Traditions of materia medica differ among different cultures. Some are rudimentary and primarily verbal while others are extremely extensive and well documented. Examples of the former include medicine as practiced in the jungles and remote regions of Asia, Africa, Australia, and tropical America. This form of medical practice still incorporates a sizable amount of magic or witchcraft but is the one that has captured and continues to capture a major part of our attention. This is due to a number of reasons, including the following two. One, it satisfies the pioneering American spirit where one goes after something exciting that can produce headlines; the end result, which is to seek leads to effective drugs, often appears to be secondary. Two, due to the lack of easy access to non-English or non-European medicinal records, jungle medicine seems to be the only alternative for most American or Western researchers.
In contrast to the primitive practice of herbal medicine and its verbal tradition as currently found in the jungles, there are some very extensively documented medical traditions that are out of reach of most Western researchers. This is not due to a separation by physical distance, but rather by the language barrier. The most extensive and best documented source of materia medica can be found in traditional Chinese medicine. I hope this paper can serve as an introduction to this so far largely untapped resource

In April 2003 The National Archives was launched bringing together the Public Record Office and the Historical Manuscripts Commission. Over the next 12 months, the National Archives will combine the services and expertise of both the PRO and the HMC. See The National Archives website for further information.

HMC is the UK's central advisory body on archives and manuscripts relating to British history. Established in 1869 HMC is the principal source of information on the nature and location of records and the leading provider of advice on matters relating to them.

Explore the fascinating history of the human endeavor to organize our lives in accordance with the sun and stars.

The Mayans devised a counting system that was able to represent very large numbers by using only 3 symbols, a dot, a bar, and a symbol for zero, or completion, usually a shell. The chart above shows the first complete cycle of numbers. Like our numbering system, they used place values to expand this system to allow the expression of very large values. Their system has two significant differences from the system we use: 1) the place values are arranged vertically, and 2) they use a base 20, or vigesimal, system. This means that, instead of the number in the second postion having a value 10 times that of the numeral (as in 11 - 1 × 10 + 1 × 1), in the Mayan system, the number in the second place has a value 20 times the value of the numeral. The number in the third place has a value of (20)2, or 400, times the value of the numeral. This principle is illustrated in the chart below.

Links to selected authoritative web sites that present information on the history and astronomy of the: Star of Bethlehem
Dr. Ernest Martin is author of The Star That Astonished the World, the best reference for information on the star and especially the history of the events surrounding it. A must have! Order from: Associates for Scriptural Knowledge, PO Box 25000, Portland, OR 97225-5000. The web site also contains a short web animation from a MSNBC "Mysteries of the Universe" series.

Understanding Chinese Medicine
History of Acupuncture & Chinese Medicine
Diagnosis in Chinese Medicine
Therapeutic Modalities in Acupuncture & Chinese Medicine
Therapeutic Programs for Specific Conditions
Traditional Chinese Medicine Information Center
Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource Center
National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Statement
Traditional Chinese Medicine Schools

The folowing outline of the history of astronomy has been compiled based on materials found in The Picture History of Astronomy by P. Moore , The Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy, Astronomia z Astrofizyka (Astronomy and Astrophisics) by J.M. Kreiner and Encarta by Microsoft®

The following works have been taken from the two-volume set of Letters; Essays and Hymns of Synesius translated by A. Fitzgerald. They were published by Oxford University Press in 1926 and 1930.
Synesius was a close friend to Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria. Theophilus was the uncle and predecessor of St. Cyril of Alexandria. He was also a student under the Platonist, Hypatia of Alexandria, whom we know was recognized to have a great intellect and ability at philosophy.