Middle Ages (5th-15th Century)

The following timeline provides a look at important occurrences in the development of the field of artificial intelligence. Those items in bold print are what we considered the most significant events in the development of AI. To investigate a topic further, follow the links provided, or check out some of the other sites provided at the bottom of the page.

Report by potters of the Koomas caste that the surgeon Susrata grafted new noses created from skin flaps. 1 pg.21 (try to locate an Indian Image instead) India 1
15 AD Report of Saint Peter replacing the young Agatha's breasts, which were cut off as punishment by Roman guards. 1

Diseases of the uro-genital tract are as old as the human species itself. Archaeological findings, as well as the very first writings, indicate that our ancestors were plagued by the same kind of discomforts routinely encountered in modern urological practice. For example, in a 5,000-year-old mummy of a child, a huge bladder stone was found. Circumcision and removal of the penile foreskin was probably the first operation ever performed on a routine basis. The importance of urinary stone disease and the dangers of treating bladder stones were already fully recognised by Hippocrates, `The Father of Medicine`. Hippocrates recognised the importance of the analysis and judgment of human excreta. This started a tradition of many ages of urine-analysis by inspection (uroscopy) and tasting.

Many people think of the table fork as either "out of period" or "very late period." Often people insist that the only period forks have two tines. Actually, table forks were known and used before the year 1000 in the middle east [Boger, Giblin]. Forks made before 1600 with as many as five tines still exist today. What is the real history of the table fork? Let us see.
The fork came to Europe through Italy's nobility in the eleventh century. Throughout the next five hundred years, the table fork spread throughout Europe, and into the lesser social classes. By 1600, the fork was known in England, although rare and viewed as an Italian affectation, while in Italy even the merchant classes were using forks regularly.

Orthopaedics, like many specialties, has developed through a necessity. A necessity to correct deformity, restore function and alleviate pain. Orthopaedic surgeons have developed an ability to prevent major losses of bodily function and indeed they can prevent otherwise inevitable death. They seek perfection of their art, by ensuring that the patient reaches optimal condition in the shortest period of time by the safest possible method.

In Colonial times, soap was made primarily from pork fat and a crude form of lye. The lye was tested for suitability by dropping an egg into it. If the egg floated, the lye was too strong. If it sank, the lye was too weak. It had to suspend or sink very slowly to be right. This doesn't quite compare to the computer generated formulas of today. However, it was the pork fat base (not the lye) that made this soap good for washing clothes, but often harsh to the skin

Salt is physiologically absolutely necessary for human life, but in the past prior to the Industrial Revolution the known mineral salt sources were limited so much so, that its supply was a critical demographic power factor for most communities, until industrial means of extraction from brines were devised. It was only available as visible and exposed rock outcrops in arid regions, or as dried out salt cake on the shores of some seas and salt lakes. In areas with wet climates, the protruding salt dissolved making it almost impossible to discover. It is probably this, more than for any other reason, that many of the great civilisations first developed near deserts and desert climates, for example the Mediterranean region, at the edges of the "arid" zones.

Much of the ancient history of fragrance is shrouded in mystery. Anthropologists speculate that primitive perfumery began with the burning of gums and resins for incense. Eventually, richly scented plants were incorporated into animal and vegetable oils to anoint the body for ceremony and pleasure. From 7000 to 4000 bc, the fatty oils of olive and sesame are thought to have been combined with fragrant plants to create the original Neolithic ointments. In 3000 bc, when the Egyptians were learning to write and make bricks, they were already importing large quantities of myrrh. The earliest items of commerce were most likely spices, gums and other fragrant plants, mostly reserved for religious purposes.

The Romans, in their wisdom, were the first people to use a structure to give plants protection.
They used heated pits covered with translucent slabs of rock to form primitive greenhouses.
It was, however in the days of the great explorers that the glasshouse (to give it its correct name) came into its own in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Strange exotic plants and seeds were being bought back to this country, from far distant lands.

The engraving is not a drawing transferred onto wood, metal or stone; it is conceived in consideration of the material which is used to make it, its nature, resources and potentialities; this is the essential starting point for achieving a style. Because it is on the matrix and not on the paper that the artist puts his creative stamp, which will be revealed in the finished print