Middle Ages (5th-15th Century)

Unlike Kyoto and Nara, most of the towns in the Asuka area are rather small. There are many hills and small mountains with farms and assorted orchards mixed between. Among these, a visitor may find both remains of and intact kofun (tombs) of emperors and noblemen atop hills or high plateaus. From the perspective of archaeoastronomy, one of the most interesting of these is Takamatsu Zuka Kofun. While the exact date of construction is unknown, this tomb (discovered in 1972) provides one of the earliest and most interesting and definitive examples of Chinese/Korean astronomical influence on Japan in the 7th century. Paintings of the 28 sei shuku (moon stations) as well as the celestial Shibien surrounding the north star and remnants of three of the four "gods" of cardinal directions can be seen.

Were it only for his role as prince, viceroy, and martyr, few scholars would know of Ulugh Beg. But his memory lives on because he was an observatory builder, patron of astronomy, and astronomer in his own right. He was certainly the most important observational astronomer of the 15th century. He was one of the first to advocate and build permanently mounted astronomical instruments. His catalogue of 1018 stars (some sources count 1022) was the only such undertaking carried out between the times of Claudius Ptolemy (ca. 170 A.D.) and Tycho Brahe (ca. 1600). And, as we shall briefly discuss here, his attitude towards scientific endeavors was surprisingly modern. The administration of Transoxiana was the responsibility of Ulugh Beg's father for most of Ulugh Beg's life. The prince had the opportunity (and the inclination) to pursue scholarly matters. His interest in astronomy dates from an early age, when he visited the remains of the Maragha Observatory, made famous by the astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-74). The principal accomplishment at Maragha was the Zij-i ilkhani, or Ilkhanic Tables.[2]

Ulugh Beg was the oldest son of Shahrukh, born in the city of Sultaniyah during his grandfather Timur's (Tamerlane's) campaign in northern Iran in 1394. At age 4 he accompanied his grandfather as far as Kabul, on the campaign that went on to take Delhi; almost immediately after the Indian campaign, he joined Tamerlane's campaign to the west which resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman ruler Bayezid I at Ankara in 1402. As Tamerlane was preparing to invade China, he celebrated the marriages of several of his grandsons, among them Ulughbeg (then age 10), who also was designated to rule over a significant portion of Moghulistan (the region encompassing part of the Tien Shan Mountains and NW Xinjiang), which, of course, was yet to be conquered. It is likely that Ulugh Beg was one of the princes seen by the Spanish ambassador Clavijo when he visited Tamerlane's court in 1403-1404.

The transitional period falls between the pre 17th century alchemy and the 18th century chemistry. The climax of this period is probably with the English scientist Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) and his book "Principia Mathematica" (1687). In this book, Newton introduced three laws of motion which served well for over two centuries in mechanical sciences. He also expanded his theories of gravitation and provided some useful explanations of the work of the Italian Scientist Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) who in the 1590's studied the behavior of falling bodies.

During that historic period known as the Renaissance, after the "dark" Middle Ages, there occurred the inventions of printing, gunpowder and the mariner's compass, followed by the discovery of America. Equally remarkable was the invention of the microscope: an instrument that enables the human eye, by means of a lens or combinations of lenses, to observe enlarged images of tiny objects. It made visible the fascinating details of worlds within worlds.

Epact is an electronic catalogue of medieval and renaissance scientific instruments from four European museums: the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, the Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence , the British Museum, London, and the Museum Boerhaave, Leiden. Together, these museums house the finest collections of early scientific instruments in the world.

In accordance with the mandate to study the "Transformation of Canada," the collection of the Canada Science and Technology Museum encompasses a broad cross-section of Canadian scientific and technological heritage. National in scope, this unique collection consists of artifacts, photographs, technical drawings, trade literature, and rare books, all of which are complemented and supported by library holdings of monographs and serials.

Prehistoric Era: Cranial Trephination
The purpose of cranial trephination, as practiced by prehistoric groups was largely to treat traumatic head injuries. Some trephinations were performed to treat headaches and seizure disorder. There were three main methods: Cutting, Scraping, Grooving and Drilling.

In April 2003 The National Archives was launched bringing together the Public Record Office and the Historical Manuscripts Commission. Over the next 12 months, the National Archives will combine the services and expertise of both the PRO and the HMC. See The National Archives website for further information.

HMC is the UK's central advisory body on archives and manuscripts relating to British history. Established in 1869 HMC is the principal source of information on the nature and location of records and the leading provider of advice on matters relating to them.