Early Modern (15th-18th Century)

Hundreds of researchers have made significant contributions to cognitive science. What follows is a set of short academic biographies of people whom we believe should be counted on anyone's list of important contributors; the work of many of them is discussed in the Companion. Not every important figure is included; and some people are included, especially from the history of cognitive science, who would not describe, or could not have described, themselves as cognitive scientists despite their considerable impact on the field. We trust that the list will be useful to students doing research in cognitive science and to readers who wish to familiarize themselves with the work of specific contributors.

The main ideas which underpin the calculus developed over a very long period of time indeed. The first steps were taken by Greek mathematicians.

To the Greeks numbers were ratios of integers so the number line had "holes" in it. They got round this difficulty by using lengths, areas and volumes in addition to numbers for, to the Greeks, not all lengths were numbers.

Until recently modern thinkers believed rubber originated in 19th century Europe. According to a Tech Talk article published by Massachusetts Institute of Technology on Wednesday, July 14, 1999, Professor Dorothy Hosler, Assistant Professor Sandra Burkett and an undergraduate named Michael Tarkanian learned that the Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica made and used rubber as long ago as 1600 BCE.

For over two thousand years people have thought about the fundamental particles from which all matter is made, starting with the gradual development of atomic theory, followed by a deeper understanding of the quantized atom, leading to the recent theory of the Standard Model.
We invite you to explore this history of particle physics with a focus on the scientists and thinkers who helped shape the field of particle physics. The four sections are arranged chronologically.

The following timeline provides a look at important occurrences in the development of the field of artificial intelligence. Those items in bold print are what we considered the most significant events in the development of AI. To investigate a topic further, follow the links provided, or check out some of the other sites provided at the bottom of the page.

Report by potters of the Koomas caste that the surgeon Susrata grafted new noses created from skin flaps. 1 pg.21 (try to locate an Indian Image instead) India 1
15 AD Report of Saint Peter replacing the young Agatha's breasts, which were cut off as punishment by Roman guards. 1

Diseases of the uro-genital tract are as old as the human species itself. Archaeological findings, as well as the very first writings, indicate that our ancestors were plagued by the same kind of discomforts routinely encountered in modern urological practice. For example, in a 5,000-year-old mummy of a child, a huge bladder stone was found. Circumcision and removal of the penile foreskin was probably the first operation ever performed on a routine basis. The importance of urinary stone disease and the dangers of treating bladder stones were already fully recognised by Hippocrates, `The Father of Medicine`. Hippocrates recognised the importance of the analysis and judgment of human excreta. This started a tradition of many ages of urine-analysis by inspection (uroscopy) and tasting.

Orthopaedics, like many specialties, has developed through a necessity. A necessity to correct deformity, restore function and alleviate pain. Orthopaedic surgeons have developed an ability to prevent major losses of bodily function and indeed they can prevent otherwise inevitable death. They seek perfection of their art, by ensuring that the patient reaches optimal condition in the shortest period of time by the safest possible method.

Salt is physiologically absolutely necessary for human life, but in the past prior to the Industrial Revolution the known mineral salt sources were limited so much so, that its supply was a critical demographic power factor for most communities, until industrial means of extraction from brines were devised. It was only available as visible and exposed rock outcrops in arid regions, or as dried out salt cake on the shores of some seas and salt lakes. In areas with wet climates, the protruding salt dissolved making it almost impossible to discover. It is probably this, more than for any other reason, that many of the great civilisations first developed near deserts and desert climates, for example the Mediterranean region, at the edges of the "arid" zones.

Many people think of the table fork as either "out of period" or "very late period." Often people insist that the only period forks have two tines. Actually, table forks were known and used before the year 1000 in the middle east [Boger, Giblin]. Forks made before 1600 with as many as five tines still exist today. What is the real history of the table fork? Let us see.
The fork came to Europe through Italy's nobility in the eleventh century. Throughout the next five hundred years, the table fork spread throughout Europe, and into the lesser social classes. By 1600, the fork was known in England, although rare and viewed as an Italian affectation, while in Italy even the merchant classes were using forks regularly.